[Reader-list] Mystical Thought of Kashmir: Prof. M.H.Zaffar

[Inder Salim]

Mystical thought of Kashmir

Prof. M.H. Zaffar

Introduction:

      Kashmir has been a highly advanced seat of learning since
ancient times. It has been at the cross currents of many cultures and
religions. The spiritual and intellectual landscape of the Valley has
always been a nodal point for different parts of the world like Iran,
Central Asia, China and Arabia for exchange of scholarly ideas on
religion, philosophy, art and literature. But for the distinctive
identity and the survival of any cultural tradition, it is essential
that it should have its roots in the soil of a world view which should
be so broad, deep and rich, that it could nurture and sustain that
culture for a considerable period of time and also assist it in
maintaining and extending its space. Kashmir’s unique identity and
essence can be delineated by identifying and foregrounding its
metaphysico-mystical traditions. Rishism, Śaivism and Sufism are ideal
frameworks to give it a locally rooted global identity.

         Kashmiri culture has been founded and nurtured by those
saints, called Rishis and Sufis in whose name Kashmir is still known
as Rishwari (abode of Rishis). The foundational layers of Kashmiri
cultural tradition are informed by the world-view which comprises
mainly the intense intellectual and spiritual labour of these Rishis.

      The majority of European historians call the medieval period of
the World history as the ‘Dark Ages’ ignoring the fact that this
period happens to be the most bright and enlightened period for many
regions of Asia, which became the harbingers of light for  other parts
of the World. Islam was born or rather re-born during this period and
the World was enriched and enlightened by its message. Islamic culture
gave a boost to the evolution of knowledge. The Greek Science had a
rebirth in the Muslim World. In Kashmir also, the growth and evolution
of knowledge was remarkable during this period. When Baghdad,
Damascus, Kashmir and many other parts of the sub-continent were great
centres of knowledge and enlightenment, most parts of the Europe were
engulfed in the darkness of superstition and ignorance.

             From the 6th century A.D to the 11th century A.D, Kashmir
was considered to be the seat of learning and knowledge, in this part
of the world. Throughout the Indian sub-continent it was known as
S’ardapith i.e. the abode of Sarasvati, the Goddess of knowledge. The
4th Buddhist Council was held here during the 3rd Century A.D. Holding
of this council in the Valley is a proof of the fact that Kashmir held
the position of centrality from the point of view of the development
of knowledge and learning, although geographically it happens to be on
the margins of the sub-continent. The objective of this council was to
reach a consensus regarding the basic tenets of Buddhism. It is said
that the famous scholar Ashwaghosh played a very significant role in
the conduct of this Council.

Buddhism and Śaivism:

           In Buddhist thought Nirvana is possible only by removing
the wrong knowledge about self and realizing the principle of non-self
or Shunya Buddhism highlighted the negative aspect of the Divine. To
be Divine is to realize the state of Non-being or shunya. The way to
the realization of this absolute state is via negation which implies
denial of all specific qualities and atributes in order to reach the
ultimate nothingness of the absolute, as Max Muller has rightly
pointed out:

        Nirvana … Is a name and thought but nothing
                    can be predicated of it. It is what no eye hath
                              seen, and what hath not entered into the
mind of man.

      Since nothing can be predicated of it; it is quality-less Being
and a   quality-less Being is Non-being. To elucidate the point
further let me quote from A.B. Keith’s Buddhist Philosophy:

        It follows from the fact that we are not concerned with
relative knowledge that any definition of suchness is utterly
impossible; to apply to it empirical determination is wholly
misleading; to say that it is void is to ascribe to it the character
which belong to the phenomena of this world; to say that it exists is
to suggest something individual like ourselves which, however, leads
to an eternal existence.  It is necessary, then, to content ourselves
with silence or to choose the simple term suchness or suchness of
being, an idea which in its simple form is known to the Hinayana.
Suchness is above existence or non-existence or both or neither. It
can, therefore, be most easily expressed by negations like the ‘Not
so, not so’ of the Upanishads, and hence it is natural to treat it as
the void. But we must not make the error of thinking this a real
definition; the void is as void as anything positive.

      As a matter of fact this way of approaching and realizing the
Divine can be discerned even in the modern mystic tradition of
Kashmir. A 19th century Sufi poet G.Q Kehnah Sings:

Chu  aura   kehnai   te  yaura    kehnai

Bau   kehnai     kas    wanai     kehnai

On either side there is Non - Being, nothingness is all pervading
                                                 I am mere
Nothingness. How to communicate with Non-Being.

      From this we can validity infer that the Buddhist approach of
realizing the Divine has significantly informed the spiritual
consciousness of Kashmiri people. Buddhism was divided into two sects:
Hinayana and Mahayana. Hinayanees are of the view that an individual
should concern himself with his own Nirvana and that is possible if he
follows the righteous eight-fold path as shown by Buddha. But
Mahayanees (Kashmiri’s were Mahayanees) are of the view that
individual Nirvana is of little significance unless and until the
realized one aims at and attempts for the Nirvana of all his fellow
beings. They advocate that although Gautama had attained
enlightenment, he came back to his fellow men as Buddha to assist them
in attaining enlightenment. The Śaivistic approach to liberation is
informed by the principles of Mahayana Buddhism. The enlightened one
has to come back to the society for the enlightenment of one’s fellow
beings and this is corroborated not only by the life and message of
Lal Ded and Nund Rishi, but also by a long line of Sufi Saint Poets
who succeeded them.

 Kashmiri Buddhist scholars achieved great excellence in logic which
informs the philosophy of the monistic Śaivism also. With the erosion
of Buddhism in Kashmir, Śaivism re-surfaced in the Valley during the
9th Century and gradually became popular among the masses. Prior to
Buddhism, Śaivism was prevalent in Kashmir, but it was not a monistic
creed. The Śavism that became popular after the decline of Buddhism
and which is also known as Trikamat, is based upon various Agmic
tantras. The etymological meaning of the word ‘Shiva’ is `good`.
According to Śaivism the ultimate and the eternal reality is ‘Absolute
Good’. The Universe is the manifestation of the Absolute Good or
Shiva. This Absolute Good is an infinite, eternal and conscious light,
which is also manifested through space and time and all that is
contained within space and time. So, the Universe is a manifestation
of the absolute reality and this reality is absolute conscious light.
Man is also a ray of the same light. The goal and purpose of human
life is to recognize this absolute and eternal reality. One of the
basic texts of the school is Vasu Gupta’s Śiva-sutras and it
articulates a strictly a monistic doctrine, in which there is no scope
for any kind of duality.

      Śiva-sutras comprise 77 sutras. These sutras are more like
riddles and coded statements and need interpretation and
de-codification. The first two sutras are quoted here to illustrate
the point. The first sutra reads:

                                 Chaitanyamatma

Which means:

                 Consciousness is the nature of reality

                                           Or

                  Consciousness is the self or soul

                                            Or

                  Consciousness is the essence of reality which is the
self or soul

The 2nd Sutra is:

                            Jñambandha

Which means:

                   Knowledge is bondage

                                              Or

 Empirical & discursive knowledge leads to the bondage of the agent.

      Of all the commentaries written on the Śiva-sutras. Khemraj’s
commentary is considered to be the most authentic. Khemraj was a
disciple of Abhinava Gupta so the commentary must have been written
some time during the 11th Century.

         The literature of monistic Śaivism consists of three parts

(1)   Agam Shastra

(2) Spanda Shastra and

(3) Pratyabhijna Shastra.

1.  Agam Shastra:- It comprises revealed books, these books are not
the product of human intelligence or experience, their origin is
believed to be spiritual in nature. Among them Śiva-sutra is
considered to be the most significant; and it is also called
Śaiva-upanishad.

2. Spand Shastra:- These are the treatises wherein the Agam Shastras
are interpreted and commented upon; the two important books belonging
to this segment are Spand Karika and Spand Sandoha.

3. Pratyabhijna Shastra:- Literally it means the discipline of
self-recognition. This part consists of works, wherein Śaivism is
presented as a school of thought, as well as a world-view. The
fundamental principles of the system are analyzed and an effort is
made to prove their validity through rational and logical arguments;
and arguments based on the experience of the agent himself. The most
significant works belonging to this segment are:

   1. Ishwar Pratyabhijna __ Utpalacharya
   2. Ishwar Pratyabhijna Vimarshini ___ Abhinava Gupta
   3. Ishwar Pratyabhijna Vivarti Vimarshini____ Abhinava Gupta.

     Even after Abhinava Gupta right upto the age of Lal-ded, the
debate regarding the principles of Śaivism continued among the
scholars and many works were also produced.  On the other hand those
interested in the spiritual well-being continued practicing the
discipline for their spiritual growth and evolution. But the fact
remains that no scholar or practitioner could match the achievements
of Abhinava Gupta. And even today Abhinava Gupta is considered to be
the chief exponent of Kashmir Śaivism.

      The ultimate reality according to this system is non-relational
consciousness. It is the cause of all change but does not itself
undergo any change. In it there is no distinction of subject and
object. Ultimate Reality is not only universal consciousness but also
supreme spiritual energy or power, that is why it is called
prakashvimarśamay. It is both transcendental (Viśvottīrna) and
immanent or (Viśvamaya). In its transcendental aspect it is called
Anuttara and in its immanent creative aspect it is called Śiva tattva.
It is Svabhāva or nature of ultimate reality to manifest itself. This
manifestation takes place through a process of decent. The first five
stages of decent are called the perfect or pure order, up to this
stage all experience is ideal and the real nature of the Divine is not
yet veiled these stages are :

   1. Śiva (2) Śakti (3) Sadāśiva (4) Īśvara (5) Sadvidyā or Śuddhavidyā

         The following 31 stages are called imperfect or impure order
because the ideal nature of the Divine is veiled. This order consists
of thirty one tattvas which are as under:

   1. I Māyā and its five Kañcukas ---  Kalā,  Vidyā, Ragā,- Kalā, Niyati
   2. Purusa and Prakrati
   3. Buddhi, Ahamkāra, and Manas.
   4.   The Tattvas of sensible experience, five Jñānendriyas, five
Karmendriyas, Five Tamātras
   5.   The Tattvas of Materiality (a) Ākāśa  (b) Vāyu (c) Teja (Agni)
(d) Āpas              (e) Pŗthivī.

  Self-recognition is the ultimate intrinsic value for Śaivism. Since
all creation has only one origin and source, there is no question of
inequality among humans on the spiritual plane. But to realize this
value man has to strive very hard. Śaivism as propounded and
propagated during the medieval times in Kashmir is not only an
academic and intellectual pursuit but essentially a spiritual course
of action for seekers of the truth and self knowledge. This is amply
proved by the very person of the saint poet Lal-Ded who transformed
her earthly existence into Heavenly Being by treading the path of the
spiritual discipline. Her poetry forms the foundation not only of
contemporary Kashmiri literature but also that of culture as a whole.
As stated earlier Kashmir produced great thinkers and Spiritual
practitioners from the 6th century A.D to the 12th century A.D but all
their works are in Sanskrit language. After the advent of Islam in
Kashmir around this time Kashmiri people gradually lost their hold on
the language due to various political, social, religious and
linguistic reasons; and whatever intellectual heritage their
predecessors had bequeathed to them, became inaccessible to them. With
the passage of time a gulf emerged between the pre- Islamic Kashmir
and the Islamic Kashmir; but Lal-Ded is the most significant
historical bridge that connects the two shores of this gulf very
effectively. She was the product of the creed preached by Vasugupta in
the 9th century and the philosophy propounded by Abhinavahgupta in the
10th and the 11th centuries. Her poetry was not written down during
her life time. It was because of her power to move that people heard
her and formed her words into chants and mantras which continue to be
sung even today. She revolted against all the oppressive structures
which` stifle and kill the human spirit and critically interrogated
practices of inequality and injustice that were current during the
times. Lala’s poetry is not only a continuation of the tradition, it
is also simultaneously a break or rebellion against the tradition.
Lala rejected wholly the ritualistic aspect of the śaivitic spiritual
discipline. This rejection is articulated and expressed with great
force in her poetry. On the one hand Lala gave a new lease of life to
Kashmiri Śaivistic spiritual tradition, but on the other hand she
demystified Śaivism by articulating its tenets in the language of the
common people and deconstructed its ideology of being a Rahasya by
making all the Upayas (means of realization) available to all those
interested in the realization of their true identity. Abhinava Gupta
in his Tantralok admits the possibility of attainting self-realization
and self-recognition without following the ritualistic path prescribed
by the tradition. But he devotes almost half of the Trantralok (2637
sholaks out of a total of 5859) to a minute and detailed description
of the various rituals prescribed by the scriptures; this clearly
shows that these rituals were considered as basic and significant
constituents of the śaivistic religious creed. According to major
śaiva scriptures there can be no valid Śaivism without ritual. One of
the postulates of these scriptures is to the effect that the impurity
(malah) that prevents the soul’s liberation is a substance (dravyav)
and to remove it; action (kriya) is needed and not (Gnosis) jñañam.
This effect can be produced only by the ritual of initiation performed
by śaiva himself through the person of officiating Guru. But Abhinava
Gupta does not totally agree with this view. For him malah or impurity
is the consequence or result of ignorance of one’s true nature or
identity and what is required for its removal is knowledge (Gnosis)
not action. But at many places Abhinava Gupta is so thick and
condescend that even his thirteen century commentator jayratha seems
to have faltered in comprehending his texts properly as has been most
ably demonstrated by Prof. Alexi-Sanderson in his article: “Sawmi
Lakshman Joo and His Place In the Kashmiririan Śaiva Tradition”. At
many places Abhinava Gupta has not explained things, do the
satisfaction of his readers due to the fact that he considers the
matter under consideration to be too secretive to be deliberated upon
beyond a certain limit. But when we come to Lal Ded. All this
secretiveness and thickness disappears and there is complete semantic
transparency. There are no hidden corners in Lal-Ded. She adopted
ritual free Trika as propounded by Abhinava Gupta as the norm. She
redeemed the doctrine of any sectarian, local & regional colour and
made it a Universal message for mankind in general. Lal-Ded is Śaivism
made-easy for man in the street irrespective of his/her cast, creed
colour, religion or sex. This is the reason for total acceptance of
Lal-Ded by almost all Kashmiris. With the passage of time there was a
schism in, the Trikamat of Kashmir Śaivism. On the one hand we have
the branch that maintains the rituals, although not much of the
traditional rituals detailed by Abhinava Gupta have survived the
ravages of the time, and now these rituals are restricted to samart
observances only, as the elaborate and complex trika rituals had died
down by the 14th century itself. On the other hand we have ritual free
Trikamat of Lal-Ded which merges with the Sufi mystic tradition of
Islam and becomes a forceful movement in the hands of the so called
Sufi poets of Kashmir.

      The unitary human mystical experience has been interpreted and
articulated by different cultures and religious in their own
particular way. But there are striking similarities among these
interpretations. Shaykh-ul-Islam Zakariyah Ansari defines Sufism in
these words:

        Sufism teaches how to purify one’s self, improve one’s morals
and build up one’s inner and outer life in order to attain perpetual
bliss. Its subject matter is the purification of the soul and its end
or aim is the attainment of eternal felicity and blessedness.1

      This doctrine of spiritual evolution which emanates from the
Holy Quran has informed the spiritual quest of the seekers of truth
all over the world. This is a well known historical fact that Kashmir
was converted to Islam not through the brute power of the sword but
through the word of love, the sages and saints right from the great
Bulbul Shah and spiritually evolved Syeds to indigenous Kashmiri
Rishis all were messengers of peace, love and harmony. Since Kashmir
had strong spiritual and mystic traditions the seekers of truth found
the atmosphere quite conducive to their quest. The indigenous mystic
traditions were refined and recast in the new moulds and a new
spiritual lexicon with a mixed terminology was developed. This can be
evidenced by the writings of various Kashmiri Sufi poets, right from
Nund Rishi (14th century) to Ahad Zargar (20th century). Let me
illustrated the point by citing just one quotation from each of these
poets. Just consider this Shalook of Nund Rishi:

      Poz yod bo:zakh pa:ntsh namu:rakh

      Nata ma:z namu:rakh soy chhem nema:z

      Shivas ta Shunyahas yod myul karakh

      Seduy soy chhay vahantar nema:z.

      If you listen to truth, curb the five;

      Otherwise, you bend the body and call it “Nemaz”!

      If you unite Siva and the void,

      That is the inner Nemaz, indeed.

      One can not but appreciate the way Nund Rishi preserves and
enriches the mystical and spiritual traditions of Kashmir. He does not
reject the sharia, which is fundamental to the Islamic Sufism, but
comes up with anew and creative interpretation of it in the light of
his own intense spiritual experience. To unite Śiva (Being) and the
Shunya (Non-Being --void) is the real Nemaz. With what ease have the
concepts belonging to different spiritual traditions been intermingled
and what a fantastic rhythm they create. The spiritual experience of
the saint has highly recharged these concepts and the terms connoting
them appear to be dancing. A divine light emanates from this dance
which is so sharp that it pierces not only one’s eyes but the heart
also.

      Ahad Zagar is one of the most significant signatures of the
contemporary Kashmiri Sufi poetry. He has great command over language.
Like his other contemporary Samad Mir he is well versed in the
spiritual ethos of Kashmir and by his contribution has definitely
enriched the tradition. Some of his poems ignited controversies in the
conservative religious circles of the valley, and some clerics even
issued fatwas against him. But threats and fatwas notwithstanding he
continued to articulate and express himself in the same controversial
but piercing idiom. Here are some extracts:

      I am the hidden secret of both the interior as well as the exterior.

      To whom shall I bow, and for whom shall I perform the ‘Nemaz’.

      I am the ultimate grace of both the mosque and the temple.

      I am the worshiper, but I am the one worshiped.

      I am the chain of birth and death.

      And it is me again who is to play the game of love.

      In the absence of Nothingness, there is no possibility of Being.

      Nothingness is all pervading.

      But if Nothingness is mere Nothingness,

      Who has deluded me?

      Realize Nothingness within yourself,

      Dance round nothingness like a moth.

      Keep your heart awake with Nothingness.

      By examining this kind of poetry even at the linguistic level,
we can probably identify the sources from which the poet draws
inspiration. To paraphrase the above verses in rational prose would be
mere sophistry. The poet has attempted to express an experience that
transcends the rational and empirical categories. This kind of
experience can be comprehended only at the level of Faith and not at
the level of Reason. Ahad Zargar is a genuine and true representative
of the mystical ethos of Kashmir.

      Going back to the Sufism that originated from the Holy Quran,
let me quote from the well known book “The Quranic Sufism” by Dr. Mir
Valinddin himself a practicing Sufi and a student and teacher of
Philosophy. In the chapter titled “On The Descent of the Absolute” he
writes:

        Now, the same Absolute Being that in the stage of
transcendence is unknown and unknowable reveals Himself in multiple
manifestations and different forms, or in the terminology of eminent
Sufis, descends in these forms, or individualises Himself in different
forms. This is of such a nature that in-spite of expressing himself in
different manifestations and multiple forms the Absolute Being
maintains His immutable state, and no change of any kind does
necessarily take place. The stages of descent are innumerable but the
most marked of these are but six and these are termed the Six Descents
by the Sufis. The first three of them are called Marātib-i-Illahi
(Divine ranks) which are ‘Ahadiyyat’ (Abstract Oneness) i.e., the
state of Essence, the infinite, the indeterminate. The second is
‘Wahdat’ (Unity) and the third ‘Wahidiyat’ (Unity in Plurality). The
remaining three are called Marātib-i-Kawni (worldly ranks) which are
‘Ruh’ (Spirit) ‘Mithal’ (similitude) and ‘Jism’ (body)

      Without making any comparisons, let us remind ourselves that,
while discussing the process of manifestation from the perspective of
Kashmir Śaivism we came across some similar formulations, although not
identifical ones.

      Delineating the essential features of Sufism, Syed Hossein Nasr
in his book Living Sufism Writes:

        The Sufi teaches this simple truth that the basis of all faith
or imān is unity. For as Shaykh Mahmud Shabistari writes in his
Gulshan-i-Raz:


        Yakay   been, yakay  gouy,    yakay   daan

        Badeen khatam aamad  asal wa farah eemaan

        See but one, say but one, know but one,
    In this are summed up the roots and branches of faith.

        The integration of man means the realization of the one and
the transmutation of the many in the light of the one.

      Right from the pre-Buddhist times Kashmiri spiritual
consciousness has been perusing this goal of realization of the
oneness of Being of course with varying degrees of successes and a
contemporary Kashmir Sufi poet sings:

      Yaura  dupmas   cha   path  zoo   jaan

      Taura dupnam cha kaya ba kaya hai hai

      Said I, I   offer,   you  my soul my life.

      Said He, what a pity you are still a victim

      of duality and talk in terms of ‘you’ and ‘Me’.

      Let me conclude this presentation with a quotation from the same
book by S. Hussain Nasr. Nasr in the chapter titled ‘Islam And the
Encounter of Religious’ writes:

              He who has gained a vision of that mountain top that
touches the infinite rests assured that the climbers who are following
other paths are nevertheless his companions on this journey which is
the only meaningful journey of life itself. His certainty comes not
only from the Vision of the peak, but also from his knowledge that
those paths that have been chosen for man  by God Himself do
ultimately lead to the top, What ever turns they may make on the way.


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