[Reader-list] Sanjay Subrahmanyam on The White Tiger, from the current LRB

[Alexander Keefe]

http://www.lrb.co.uk/v30/n21/subr01_.html
Diary Sanjay Subrahmanyam

Anyone who has read the inside pages of Indian newspapers over the past few
decades will be familiar with the recurring stories of violent urban crime.
Some concern 'crimes of passion' and use a peculiar Indian English
journalistic vocabulary, involving such terms as 'eve-teasing', 'absconding'
and 'paramour'. Some of the stories have to do with incest or close family
relationships – say, between father-in-law and daughter-in-law – while
others are tales of paedophilia and 'child molestation'. Another popular
subject of which Delhi residents will be well aware are the crimes committed
by the 'criminal castes', often linked in the neocolonial imagination of the
city's bourgeoisie to the villages and smallholdings that are gradually
being asphyxiated by Delhi's expansion. It's been an urban legend since the
1990s that people are being bludgeoned to death in their houses with blunt
instruments even though they haven't resisted; and that the intruders show
their contempt for their victims by defecating in their living-rooms. Class
elements are present in the reporting of crimes of passion, which the elite
naturally associate with slum-dwellers and squatters: the second type of
crime involves something approaching class warfare.

But the dominant topic of past decades has been domestic servants, an
indispensable part of life but also a source of endless paranoia in
metropolitan households. These domestic servants come in various guises.
Some commute to work by public transport, perform tasks in several
households, and return home at the end of the day. Many others are children,
or barely adolescent, and sleep in the house where they work (though they
aren't usually allowed to use the same bathrooms and toilets as their
employers). They may be poor relatives; or they may be adults from outside
the family. They have no fixed hours, though in some cases they are given a
day off every week or every fortnight. The government recognises their
existence by providing every state employee who attains 'officer' status
with a flat or house that has 'servants' quarters' attached to it. Here, in
the alleys at the back of government residential areas, a world exists in
parallel to that of the houses and flats that look out onto the streets and
gardens. It is a curious form of what the Brazilian sociologist Gilberto
Freyre, in his discussion of the relationship between plantation owners and
their slaves, called *casa grande e senzala*; sometimes the children of the
masters and those of the servants can be found spinning tops or flying kites
together.

Servants are naturally a favourite topic of conversation. 'They are so
difficult to get and so hard to keep.' 'They don't know their station any
more.' 'It's not like it was in the good old days when they were so loyal
that they were really members of the family.' And so on. The paranoia
resurfaces every time there is a story in the papers about an elderly couple
found murdered and robbed by their resident servant; and the paranoia
increases when the police, as they usually do, place advertisements in the
papers advising employers to run 'background checks' on potential employees.
Attempts are made from time to time to introduce identity cards for
servants, and urban Indians wistfully say how much better arrangements are
in Singapore, where servants are strictly regulated by the state, have just
one day off a month, and women are kicked out if they get pregnant. A
bourgeois household may have washing-machines, vacuum cleaners, microwaves
and other domestic aids, but who can live without one servant, or several?
Every American, European or Japanese who lives in an Indian city succumbs
soon enough to the Servant Raj.

Some time in the 1980s, a friend of mine had a lavish wedding in one of the
cities. Though he lived and worked in India, his family was spread across
the West and they turned up in large numbers, accompanied by Western friends
who were not above a bit of freeloading. The wedding was an extended affair
and what began cordially enough soon deteriorated into squabbling. Some of
it was the usual friction resulting from familial proximity, but there was
another, more peculiar cause. Some of the relatives from abroad announced
that they were appalled by class relations in India. They didn't just mean
the rickshaw-pullers on the streets: what troubled them was the position and
treatment of domestic servants, who had been mobilised in large numbers for
the wedding. They were there to clean up after parties that ended in the
early hours of the morning, and yet had to be up to make masala omelettes
for the honoured guests when they rolled out of bed. All this smacked of a
dreadful feudalism to those whose parents had lived in India a bare
generation before, surrounded in all probability by even larger numbers of
servants. It seemed archaic and primitive, unworthy of a democracy, an
affront to liberal principles. Eventually, many of those who had come from
abroad stormed off with their moral superiority intact, leaving their Indian
relatives bemused.

Social scientists reflecting on India tend to discuss class in its rural
version (relations between landlords, peasants and wage labourers), or in
its classic urban incarnation of the factory and shop floor, or in terms of
what has been termed 'footloose labour' – which is to say, the labour used
on construction sites or for contract work on piece rates or for a wage.
Even the broad intellectual grouping known as Subaltern Studies hasn't taken
domestic work into account, save for the occasional moment when a
conversation with a servant provides the researcher with an anecdote or
factoid to motivate an essay on some profound question or other. It is very
hard to define or measure class in a country where data on personal income
and assets are extremely hard to come by. It is even harder to know for
certain what has happened in the past two decades since economic
liberalisation was proclaimed. But there are clearly very rich people in the
cities now with fancy imported cars, expensive watches and clothes, and
showy lifestyles, and they live side by side with slum-dwellers and those
who sleep on pavements. There are urban and suburban developments that boast
such names as Malibu Towers, Beverly Hills Residence and Bel-Air Estate.
This is growth all right, but of a sort that can induce vertigo. It is what
Aravind Adiga's Man Booker Prize-winning *The White Tiger* is ostensibly
about.[*] <http://www.lrb.co.uk/v30/n21/subr01_.html#footnotes>

The book purports to tell the story of a murder committed by its narrator,
Balram Halwai (also known as 'White Tiger'), from the eastern Indian state
of Bihar, who moves first to the prosperous suburb of Gurgaon near Delhi to
work for Mr Ashok and his wife, Pinky Madam, and then to the booming city of
Bangalore in South India, which together with Hyderabad is associated in
clichés with the country's recent economic transformation. We learn the fact
of this murder some thirty pages into the book, at the end of the first
chapter: 'Eight months later, I slit Mr Ashok's throat.' The plot has no
twists and turns, no real surprises; there is no sleight of hand. The novel
just rolls on like an Indian Railways train, from one stop to another, over
seven chapters that are notionally recounted over seven nights.

Why Bihar? It is a state that has some of the lowest economic and
developmental indicators in modern India, and is also part of a large swathe
of territory where Naxalite (or Maoist) groups operate with impunity. Urban
Indians, especially from the great metropolitan centres, love to sneer at
Bihar, as the worst part of the so-called Cow Belt, a place where banditry,
caste warfare and feudalism are rampant and where one of the leading
politicians is Laloo Prasad Yadav, who provides much hilarity in the salons
of Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore (and who has a role even in this novel).
Balram refers to Bihar as the world of 'Darkness', a term that appears
repeatedly in the book in opposition to 'Light' – i.e. the sophisticated
urban destinations to which the narrator is headed. People like him don't
speak the increasingly standard Hindi of northern India, but rather its
eastern Indian versions, such as Maithili and Bhojpuri, the dialects spoken
by 19th-century working-class migrants to Calcutta, Fiji, Mauritius and
Guyana. Even now, they are mocked as rustics because of it.

Balram hates Bihar and hates his ancestral village of Laxmangarh, which is
apparently only a few miles from Bodh Gaya, the pilgrimage site where the
Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment: 'I wonder if the Buddha
walked through Laxmangarh – some people say he did. My own feeling is that
he ran through it – as fast as he could – and got to the other side – and
never looked back!' Balram is cynical about the Hindu religion, which he
views in an entirely instrumental manner. He despises the holy river Ganges,
which for him is no more than a large open drain. His village is a place
'split into two' by 'a bright strip of sewage', and where there are 'three
more or less identical shops selling more or less identically adulterated
and stale items of rice, cooking oil, kerosene, biscuits, cigarettes and
jaggery'. It is this background, the anything but bucolic world of
Laxmangarh, that propels him to seek employment in the provincial city and
mining centre of Dhanbad.

Here, after a bit of instruction from a local taxi driver, he finds work as
a driver with a powerful family that controls large parts of his native
region. The next sections of the book trace Balram's rise through the
household of this master, where, after first being obliged to drive the
humble Indo-Japanese Maruti Suzuki, he reaches a triumphant position behind
the wheel of the family's chief car, the luxurious Honda City. Balram has
had to exercise his ruthlessness to get there, developing the skills he
honed while working in a teashop, doing his job 'with near total dishonesty,
lack of dedication, and insincerity'. His rise involves betraying and
blackmailing another driver, a secret Muslim, pretending to be a Hindu
called Ram Persad. By stages, Balram is elevated to serve the family at a
far higher salary, in Delhi and Gurgaon, where it has sent its sons so that
they can live out of harm's way (further away from the Naxalites) and closer
to the centres of political power. A hundred pages into the novel, we have
migrated from Darkness into Light, from the feudal world of Bihar into the
suburban and metropolitan one of Gurgaon and Delhi.

Adiga's may be the first novel in English to attempt to come to terms with
the phenomenon that is Gurgaon. It is, to put it mildly, a curious place. A
quarter of a century ago, it was an agrarian region in the state of Haryana
on the fringes of Delhi, inhabited by Jat agriculturists and Gujjar
pastoralists and farmers. As Delhi expanded southwards, it became a place of
opportunity, with the state of Haryana offering incentives for entrepreneurs
to invest. In the late 1980s, I remember the first condominiums going on
sale there, and Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) buying into them. The car firm
Maruti Suzuki, one of whose products Balram drives in Dhanbad, opened a
factory. Money began to flow in, often in obscene quantities. I recall
visiting a bank in Gurgaon in the mid-1990s in order to make a safe deposit
withdrawal on behalf of a friend; the manager proudly pointed to a large and
freshly cemented patch in the roof where armed robbers had broken in one
night a couple of weeks before and fought a pitched gun battle with local
police. My friend's deposit was still intact.

There are now enormous malls and glass towers housing firms such as Alcatel
and Siemens. But it is an insecure world, where employees walk to collect
their cars with what I gather is an understandable nervousness. Muggings are
frequent, as are kidnapping and carjacking. Last year IBM apparently issued
a memo to its staff advising them to take a long list of precautions. The
following story from the *Hindustan Times* of 2 September gives a flavour of
the situation (and of Indian journalese):

Yet another incident of carjacking was reported from Gurgaon on Monday. Two
armed youths reportedly snatched the keys of a Scorpio (HR 26 AH 8100) that
was parked in DLF Cyber City from its driver and drove away with the driver
still inside. The incident occurred at 11.15 p.m. when hundreds of other
vehicles were parked in the area. The SUV belongs to a businessman who lives
in Sushant Lok, Phase I. Ashok Kumar, station head officer of DLF City
police station said driver Rajeshwar Mandal was sitting in the vehicle and
the owner, Vikram Veer, had gone to a restaurant at Infinity Towers.

'Two youths armed with pistols entered into an altercation with the driver
saying he had hit their car. The youths then pushed the driver inside and
drove the car away,' Kumar said. The robbers snatched Mandal's mobile phone
and other belongings and stripped him before dumping him near Palam Vihar.

In June this year, the Gurgaon police had issued a word of caution to people
driving their cars at odd hours. It had cautioned a motorcycle-borne gang of
carjackers was on the prowl in Gurgaon and was snatching cars at gunpoint.
In August also, Gurgaon police commissioner Mohinder Lal had said a gang of
professional auto-lifters from neighbouring towns as well as from Bihar and
West Bengal were active in Gurgaon. As many as 1100 auto theft cases have
been reported till date in Gurgaon as against 950 cases in the corresponding
period last year.

In this Wild West atmosphere, which Gurgaon shares to an extent with other
prosperous Delhi suburbs such as NOIDA and Faridabad, nothing is quite what
it seems. There are shoot-outs in courtrooms. There are swanky clinics with
five-star decor and marble floors where medical attention borders on the
criminally negligent. Gurgaon is fragile, but many NRIs are happy to buy
into it because they want to believe in the illusions it seems to support:
the illusion of security, of the safety of gated communities, the illusion
that one is not living in India because one is surrounded by Benetton, Nike,
Pizza Hut, TGI Friday. But these are illusions that can be sustained only
because the drivers and domestics, the cleaners and sweepers, not to speak
of the armed security guards, are all in place. I imagine that large numbers
of executives fly into New Delhi's Indira Gandhi Airport in business class,
and return to Paris or Düsseldorf three days later without having set foot
in any part of India other than Gurgaon.

It is this world that Adiga sets out to dissect in the most ambitious part
of the book. Balram lives in the servants' apartments in Buckingham Towers B
Block. It is, as he describes it, part of a 'warren of interconnected rooms
where all the drivers, cooks, sweepers, maids and chefs of the apartment
block can rest, sleep and wait'. Balram's master and mistress, Mr Ashok and
Pinky Madam, the son and daughter-in-law of his feudal Dhanbad employer,
live on the 13th floor of the apartment block in a flat that their driver
finds cramped after the Dhanbad house. Mr Ashok, it turns out, is a
wishy-washy liberal who was educated in the US, unlike his brother Mukesh, a
more rooted and vicious representative of the Bihari landlord class. He has,
however, had the courage to oppose his family in marrying Pinky, presented
less as an NRI than an ABCD (American-Born Confused *Deshi*), an
Indian-American who is also a Christian. Balram lusts after Pinky, her fancy
perfumes, skirts and low-cut tops, through the rear-view mirror. Pinky, for
her part, sneers at Balram and his crude English and his habit of scratching
his crotch while working in the kitchen.

In an improbable moment, a drunken Pinky insists on taking the wheel and
accidentally runs over the child of a pavement-dweller. There is an attempt
to persuade Balram to take the rap and he signs a statement falsely
admitting his guilt. But this is unnecessary: the poor have no rights and no
one has registered the hit-and-run accident. Still, a disgusted and somewhat
remorseful Pinky departs for America and asks for a divorce. Mr Ashok falls
into despair, drinking and puking his way through the next few pages. He
begins to frequent former girlfriends and the odd blonde Ukrainian
prostitute in seedy hotels. Balram is torn between a certain sympathy for
his misery and a contempt for his lack of gumption. Contempt triumphs and he
begins to contemplate his employer's murder. One rainy night when Mr Ashok
is in possession of a large sum in cash, he draws him out of the car,
claiming that a tyre needs repair, and kills him with an empty bottle of
Johnnie Walker Black Label, smashing his head in and then cutting his
throat. Accompanied by a young nephew, he decamps for Bangalore. Of course,
Balram knows that his employer's family will visit vengeance on his. But he
doesn't care. His brothers and their children may be slaughtered, the women
of the family may be raped, but he is indifferent. Adiga wants us to see all
this as emblematic of the new Indian tough guy, the murderous entrepreneur
who will step over any number of dead bodies to get his way.

The idea of a resentful, oppressed protagonist murdering his employer and
getting away with it in pursuit of his ideal of social mobility is not much
of a novelty. Any innovation must therefore be sought in the novel's
narrative voice. But there is also a framing device that should be
mentioned: each chapter consists of a message sent by Balram to Wen Jiabao,
the prime minister of the People's Republic of China, who is about to visit
Bangalore. This adds nothing to the novel beyond permitting Balram to
present himself as a Third World rather than a merely Indian racist.
Consciously or not, it also imitates far funnier and more successful
examples, such as John Barth's 'Petition' from *Lost in the Funhouse*,
addressed to the King of Siam.

The novel is not, contrary to confused assertions in the Indian press,
another attempt at a form of Indian magical realism in the wake of Salman
Rushdie and Arundhati Roy. No one has telepathic or supernatural powers
here; time is broadly Newtonian in its flow. This is a novel that wants to
be realistic, even if the realism is meant to be understood as tinged with
black comedy. There may even be some moralising intention, with Adiga
denouncing the greed and corruption of the New Indian Society. But the merit
of the book must eventually rest on the credibility and verisimilitude of
the voice of Balram Halwai.

As it turns out, the Halwais are an upper-middling caste of
sweetmeat-makers, resident across large swathes of northern India and often
using the caste name of Gupta. Balram is presented in the novel as
impoverished but with some education, even if it doesn't give him access to
English. 'Neither you nor I speak English,' he writes to Wen Jiabao at the
outset of the novel, and yet the novel is written in English. We are meant
to believe – even within the conventions of the realist novel – that a
person who must really function in Maithili or Bhojpuri can express his
thoughts seamlessly in a language that he doesn't speak.

This is a problem that takes us back to the roots of the Indian novel in
English and its two broad categories. One type deals with Indian characters
who speak English because they have had a Western education (as in the work
of Vikram Seth), and often involves middle-class angst, urban lust and loss,
or satirical views on post-colonial pretension. Some of these novels
describe more or less ironically the tragic fate of anglicised members of
India's elite colleges, rotting away in the 1980s in the wilds of places
like Dhanbad while dreaming of Fleetwood Mac or Supertramp. At its most
genteel, this attitude may be found in an Indian-American writer such as
Jhumpa Lahiri, whose work would never embrace the subjectivity of a crass
chauffeur from Bihar who smashes his employer's head in with a whisky bottle
in Dhaula Kuan while chewing betel-leaf.

The other – more common – type of novel tries to represent in English
dialogue spoken in another language. Some writers, like Raja Rao, adopt an
elaborate sing-song tone supposedly intended to correspond to the rhythms
not merely of the various Indian vernaculars but of Indian life itself.
Others, including Rushdie, have tried the macaronic solution, sprinkling
their English with Hindi or Urdu words or even inventing words. Still
others, such as Lee Siegel (who navigates between Indology and fiction
writing), have attempted for comic effect to have Indians speak in a drolly
exaggerated way, through the use of odd vowels and diphthongs. None of these
solutions really works; what they bring to mind are the SS officers in World
War Two films speaking English among themselves with a strong Mitteleuropean
accent. Rushdie's characters sound like no known Indian, but this is not
meant to matter because his novels are not realistic. None of these writers
has the ethnographic ambitions of a Zola, attempting to capture, notebook in
hand, the vocal nuances of the Other.

What of Balram Halwai? What does he sound like? Despite the odd *namaste*, *
daal*, *paan* and *ghat*, his vocabulary is not sprinkled with North Indian
vernacular terms. His sentences are mostly short and crudely constructed,
apparently a reflection of the fact that we're dealing with a member of the
'subaltern' classes. He doesn't engage in Rushdian word-play. But he does
use a series of expressions that simply don't add up. He describes his
office as a 'hole in the wall'. He refers to 'kissing some god's arse', an
idiomatic expression that doesn't exist in any North Indian language.
'Half-formed ideas bugger one another, and make more half-formed ideas' and
the Chinese prime minister is advised never to 'let that blasphemous idea
into your yellow skull'. On another matter, he sneers: 'They're so
yesterday.' A clever little phrase appears: 'A statutory warning – as they
say on cigarette packs – before we begin.' Dogs are referred to as 'mutts'.
Yet whose vocabulary and whose expressions are these? On page after page,
one is brought up short by the jangling dissonance of the language and the
falsity of the expressions. This is a posh English-educated voice trying to
talk dirty, without being able to pull it off. This is not Salinger speaking
as Holden Caulfield, or Joyce speaking as Molly Bloom. It is certainly not
Ralph Ellison or James Baldwin, whom Adiga has claimed as his models in
speaking for the underdog. What we are dealing with is someone with no sense
of the texture of Indian vernaculars, yet claiming to have produced a
realistic text.

Imagine recording the speech of your interlocutor – a driver encountered in
a car park in Gurgaon, say – in an Indian language and trying to render it
not literally, but credibly, and with some effort at verisimilitude, into
English. This is no easy task. The translator always faces dilemmas, of
course, and can never get it quite right. But we also know what it is to get
it disastrously wrong. It is when the 'autobiography' of an Indian
untouchable woman appears in French using expressions from Victor Hugo. The
falsity in *The White Tiger* goes much further. It means having a character
who cannot read Urdu, and certainly has no notion of Persian, tell us that
his favourite poets include Jalaluddin Rumi and Mirza Ghalib. It means
having someone who can't read English being able to recall a conversation in
which his interlocutor speaks of books by James Hadley Chase, Kahlil Gibran,
Adolf Hitler and Desmond Bagley. Try that lot out on a Hindi speaker who
knows no English next time you are in India.

Adiga gets the tone right only when he writes of the world of the bourgeois.
Some of this is quite funny and rings partly true.

'Ashok,' she said. 'Now hear this. Balram, what is it we're eating?'
I knew it was a trap, but what could I do? – I answered. The two of them
burst into giggles.
'Say it again, Balram.'
They laughed again.
'It's not piJJA. It's piZZa. Say it properly.'
'Wait – you're mispronouncing it too. There's a *T* in the middle. *Peet*. *
Zah*.'
'Don't correct *my* English, Ashok. There's no *T* in pizza. Look at the
box.'

Some two decades ago, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak wrote a celebrated essay,
'Can the Subaltern Speak?' At the time, a folklorist is said to have
responded: 'More importantly, can the bourgeois listen?' We can't hear
Balram Halwai's voice here, because the author seems to have no access to
it. The novel has its share of anger at the injustices of the new,
globalised India, and it's good to hear this among the growing chorus of
celebratory voices. But its central character comes across as a cardboard
cut-out. The paradox is that for many of this novel's readers, this lack of
verisimilitude will not matter because for them India is and will remain an
exotic place. This book adds another brick to the patronising edifice it
wants to tear down.